I. Climate and it's changes (lessons 1-5).

1. Definitions: "climate", "weather".

Fig. 1
 

*** the typical dependences (fig. 1 as an example) of temperature, humidity, wind velocity in Kiel, Tallinn, Rantasalmi, Petrozavodsk on time (for one year period). These pictures give a good opportunity to illustrate and compare the climate and weather parameters in the towns.

2. Climate-forming factors I. The draft qualitative approach.

Key words: open systems, radiation, convection, heat/mass transfer

• The main "external" (natural) factors: Solar radiation (10~7 Wt), gravity, Earth's rotation. Interacting systems: land, ocean, atmosphere (all connected by energy/heat and mass transfer). The result: global circulation in the ocean and atmosphere, (statistically) stable temperature and velocity fields, Gadley's cells.

• The role of Coriolis forces: passats, the main currents in the ocean.
• Hydrodynamical instability and cyclonic structure as the result.

The parameters of the structure depend on the configuration and orography of continents. Despite the stochastic nature of the processes, the whole system is self-organized: for example the main parameters of time and spatial cycles are stable.

*** The examples of stable parameters (preferable wind direction, periods of cyclonic activity etc.)

Demonstrations:

• Rayleigh- Benard instability for the liquid heated from below, Taylor instability for the liquid between rotating cylinders.

Additional materials, exercises, homeworks, remarks:

• to evaluate the mass and kinetic energy of atmosphere.
• to compare the heat inertia of the ocean and atmosphere.
• Lottka-Volterra model as the simplest example of self-organised system.
• -Chemical reactions with time periodicity (Belousov-Zhabotinski).
• The famous "Red Spot" of Jupiter as an extreme example of stable structure in atmosphere

3. Climate-forming factors II. Numeric values of climate parameters and their controlling factors.

Key words: self-organised systems, stability, relaxation times, natural rotation times, biocoinosis.

• The key role of atmosphere and ocean as "heat amortizators". In comparison: the temperature of different sides of Mercury (without atmosphere) are approx. +400° and -200°; of Moon +130° and -150°.
• The crucial role of the gas structure of atmosphere. Some gases are optically active and have strong influence on the optical density of atmosphere despite their concentration is negligible in comparison with O2 and N2. The stable concentration is the result of the complicated rotation of these substances in nature.
• The nonlinear character of the dependence between concentrations of some gas components and absorption of radiation for different regions of spectra. For example, the (20-30)% dereasing of O3 concentration leads to 2-3 times increasing of UF-radiation.
• The detailed analysis of H2O and C - rotation in nature as an examples.
• The gas structure of atmosphere is rather stable and self-regulating in rather wide limits. But out of these limits the instability arise and is enhanced due to existence of numerous inverse connections (see below, CO2 concentration).
• Aerosol particles. Their role is especially essential for upper layers of atmosphere. The possible chain of effects: increasing of concentration of aerosols in stratosphere - decreasing the rate of solar radiation
• the changes in global circulation of troposphere.
• Biocoinosises and their stabilizing role. The geophysical factors itself are able to change essentially the climate characteristics during 106 years toward the impossible for life conditions, but mainly due to biota it hasn't happened at least during last 109 years.
• Biocoinosises are also self-regulating, but only if external violations don't exceed 1%.

Demonstrations:

• The videofilm with the results of computermodelling of M.Plank Institute.

• Estimation of the amount of energy which is necessary to increase the temperature of the upper layers of the oceans up to 1 O, compare the result with the power of solar radiation. - Estimation of the energy of the big thunderstorm cloud (10~5).

4. The natural changes of climate, including retrospective analysis.

Key words: climate cycles, stratosphere, paleodata.

• The main climate cycles: their periods and physical origins.
• The cycles of Milankovich. Solar activity cycles.
• Volcano activity, the nature of violations and their relaxation times.
• Similar effects during Golf War
• Paleodata: 0.1% (10i4 Wt) variations of energy income lead to essential climate changes.

• Laboratory modelling of the Gulf War consequences..

1. World energetics and it's structure.

Key words: biogeocoinosises, antropogenic pressure, demotechnical index.

• V.I.Vernadski: the human activity becomes geological factor. 60% of pollutions in atmosphere are industry gases, the reducing of biomass reaches 2 10~2 per year (including 1% reducing the territories of forests). The violation of the natural rotation of C, H2O etc.
• The integrating parameter of antropogenic influence is energy Entropy increasing processes. production. Now the level is almost 10'3 Wt (10 TWt) and 87% of this amount is due to organic resources (coal, oil, gas, firewood). This level seems negligible compared with solar radiation, but is very close to critical value 10~4 Wt. Humanity is consuming (6-8)% of the biota production while the dangerous level is 1%.
• Demotechnical index D - the ratio of technological consuming of energy to physiological one (2333 Kcal per day). For developed countries the energy consuming is approx. 10 KWt per person (D = 50-100), for most developing countries this index is slightly more than 1.

2. Traditional energy resources.

• The problem of exhaustion of organic resources. The modern level of consuming of oil, gas and coal may be supported correspondingly only 30, 50, 240 years.
• Power stations and their parameters (including hydro and nuclear stations).

3. Alternative energy producers.

• Wind energy and wind stations. Vestas apparature, other types of stations.
• Solar stations.

• The energy of tides; geothermal energy.
• Potential energy resources: MHD-generators, wave power stations etc.
• Bioenergetics.

4. Energy resources and consuming in Karelia.

• The State programme "Energy" for Karelia (up to 2015). - Data on the amount of water and wind mills in Olonetz region (1916), with photomaterials.
• Statistical data on the pollution of atmosphere in Karelia, 1993-95.
• Annual air temperature and precipitation in Petrozavodsk (from 1805 to 1994).

III. Antropogenic climate changes_2 (lessons 11-16).

1. Greenhouse effect

2. Aerosols.

• Now 17% of aerosol particles in troposphere are due to human activities. Moreover the active penetration of small-fraction particles in stratosphere is observed since 60-s. The last process is especially dangerous because the relaxation periods of the upper layers of atmosphere are very large (months, years and more) and on the other hand the temperature regime of the Earth is very sensitive with respect to the physical conditions of this layers.
• Size distribution functions of industry aerosols. The dependence of relaxation times on size. Crossfrontier transfer.

** 3. Ozone Layer.

** 4. Acid rains.

5. Temperature inversions. Provoked photochemical reactions.

IV. The ways of preserving the climate stability and saving energy resources (lessons 17-22).

 Key words: decarbonization of energetics, efficiency.

The ways of energy saving on the stages of extracting, transportation and consuming.

• Efficiency of the heat stations and engines. Internal combustion engines, Stirling engine.
• New methods of accumulation of energy. The energy of rotation. "Inertia bus".
• The overview of gas-cleaning methods. Cyclones, Electric precipitators.

• usual electric lamps with optically sensitive elements.
• saving of energy at home.
• The problems of Ida-Virumaa.
• ** Pupil's activity.

Appendix 1. Exercise book.

 I. 1. Estimation of the temperature of planets and the Sun's surface.

I.2. The calculation and comparison of climatic parameters on opposite sides of the mountain chain with preferable wind velocity in perpendicular direction. (Lee side is more dry and hot, which sometimes result is desert appearance).

II.3. Evaluation of the upper limit of efficiency of water and wind engines (8/27).

III.3. Evaluation of the precipitation distance 1 for particles of different sizes d. (For wind velocity 6 m/c: if d = 2 10= cm, 1= SOOkm;ifd=2 10~3cm,1=lOOkm).

II.3 The evaluation of the energetic potential of the sea waves. (Approx. 1 kWt per meter of coast).

IV. The calculation of the optimal stechiometric coefficients (proportion fuel-air) for modern engines. (For CH4 proportion is 1: 10).

 III.5. The value of temperature gradient in troposphere. (1°C per 100m).

Appendix 2. Computer support.

"Delphi" - application for Windows with wide opportunities for modelling simple bio-, geo-, meteorprocesses.